GENERAL REVISION

GENERAL REVISION





I/ SPELLING


Nouns, verbs and adjectives can have the
following endings :


Noun+ s/es (plural)

Books, ideas, matches

Verb+ s/es (after he, she, it)

Works, enjoys, washes

Verb+ ing

Working, enjoying, washing

Verb+ ed

Worked, enjoyed, washed

Adjective+ er (comparative)

Cheaper, quicker, brighter

Adjective+ est (superlative)

Cheapest, quickest, brightest

Adjective+ ly (adverb)

Cheaply, quickly, brightly



When we use these endings, there are sometimes
changes in spelling:


Nouns
and verbs +s/ es




The ending is (es) when the word
ends in s, ss, sh, ch, x.


Example: bus/ buses miss/ misses wash/ washes match/ matches box/ boxes


words
ending in (y) like baby, carry, easy:




if a word ends in a consonant + (by,
ry, sy, vy, …):


(Y) changes to (ie) before the ending (s):

Baby/ babies story/ stories try/ tries country/ countries

(Y) changes to (i) before the ending (ed):

Hurry/ hurried study/studied apply/ applied

(Y) changes to (i) before the endings (er and
est)

Easy/ easier, easiest lucky/ luckier, luckiest

(Y) changes to (i) before the ending (ly)

Easy/ easily heavy/ heavily






(Y)
does not change before (ing): hurriying tryinf
(Y)
does not change if the word ends in a vowel + y (ay, ey, oy, uy)







An exception is : day/ daily, lay/ laid say/ said


Doubling consonants: Sometimes, a word ends in
a vowel + a consonant like in:


Stop, plan, wet, thin, slip, prefer, regret


Before the endings (ing, ed, er, est), we
double the consonant:


Stop_stopped, stopping; thin_ thinner, thinnest.


BUT we do not double (y) or (w) at the
end of words: stay_stayed; grow_
growing.





II/SYLLABLE DIVISION/
SOME RULES


one
syllable word is never divides: example: ill
when
the word has a prefix, divide the word between the root and the prefix:
eg: mis/use
when
the word has a suffix, divide between the root and the suffix: fee/ly
when
two consonants come between two vowels, the word is divided after the
first consonant: of/ten
when
a consonant comes between two vowels, the word is divided before the
consonant: mu/sic
when
two vowels come together and are pronounced separately, the word is
divided between the two vowels: radi/o
when
a vowel is sounded alone in a word, it forms a syllable: e/vent
















III/ STRESS : a stressed syllable is part of a
word that is pronounced longer and louder than the other parts.


Most
of 2 syllabic words are stressed on the first syllable if it is not a
prefix.




Example: open, winter precious


BUT : begin, forget, believe, resume, occur, alarm, result, again, perhaps, event, advice


Most
of 3 syllabic words are stressed on the first syllable of the root:




Example: difficult, organise, sensitive


BUT: remember together
professor





All words ending in ‘ion’ are stressed on the
syllable before the last:


Example: division, examination, tradition, revolution, illusion





IV/ REPORTED SPEECH


1/ REPORTED STATEMENTS:


When the reporting verb is in the present,
there is no change in tense:


“ I’m a teacher.” She says
that she is a teacher. Here, we’ve used the present simple in both sentences
because the reporting verb (say) is in the present.


BUT: When the reporting verb is in the past,
there are always corresponding tenses to the ones used in the direct speech
simply because we don’t report what happens but what happened.


Example:


“I am a teacher”. She said
that she was a teacher.


Present simple

Past simple

Present continuous

Past continuous

Present perfect simple

Past perfect simple

Present perfect continuous

Past perfect continuous

Past simple

Past perfect

Past continuous

Past perfect continuous

Past perfect

Past perfect (no possible change)

Past perfect continuous

Past perfect continuous (no possible change)






Other verb forms also change:


will

Would

can

Could

must

Had to

shall

Should

may

Might






Time and place references:


now

then

today

That day

here

There

this

That

tomorrow

The following day, the next day, the day
after

Next week

The following week, the next week, the week
after

yesterday

The previous day, the day before

Last week

The previous week, the week before

A week ago

A week before

tonight

That night

Last Sunday

The previous Sunday, the Sunday before



2/ REPORTED QUESTIONS


a) “WH” QUESTIONS:


After the reporting verb, we :
first, rewrite the “wh” word


Second: rewrite the subject



Third: rewrite the verb in the corresponding tense if the reporting verb
is in the past.


b)
“YES/
NO” QUESTIONS:


After the reporting verb, we: first:
write if or whether



Second:
write the subject



Third: write the verb in the corresponding tense.


3/ REPORTED INSTRUCTIONS AND REQUESTS/
ORDERS


a)
Affirmative commands:
to + STEM


b)
Negative commands: not
to + STEM


V/ PASSIVE TENSES


Present
Simple : is or are + past participle




Eg: Computers are shipped to many
countries.


Present
Continuous: is/are + being + past participle




The food is being prepared.


* Past Simple: was/ were + past
participle


Eg: The package was delivered
yesterday.


Past
continuous : was/ were + being +
past participle




Eg: The house was being painted when
I arrived.


Present
Perfect Simple : has/ have + been + past participle




Eg: Over 20 models have been
produced.


Past
Perfect Simple: had + been + past participle




Eg: We had been given visas for
three months.


Modals
(can, may…) modal + be + past participle




Eg: The computer can be used.


VI/ CONDIRIONAL
SENTENCES


1/ IF CLAUSES


TYPE ONE: if + Present Simple, Future


Eg: If you don’t go to the doctor soon, the
problem will get worse.


TYPE TWO: if
+ Past Simple, would + infinitive


Eg: If I had time, I would call him.


TYPE THREE: if + Past Perfect, would have +
past participle


Eg: If I hadn’t called, I wouldn’t have known
about the meeting.





2/ THE USE OF “UNLESS”


Unless + affirmative verb is similar to if +
negative verb.


Eg: unless I hurry, I will miss the bus = If I
don’t hurry, I will miss the bus.
































VII/ PRONUNCIATION OF
THE FINAL “s”


The
final “s” is pronounced /s/ after: t, p, k, f, th( ث)
The
final “s” is pronounced /z/ after: d, b, g, m, n, r, v, l, th (ذ)
The
final “s” is pronounced /iz/ after: sh, ch, s, z, ge, dge




VIII/ PRONUNCIATION OF
FINAL “ed”


The
final “ed” is pronounced /id/ after: t, d
The
final “ed” is pronounced /d/ after: b, g, v, ge, dge, z, m, n, w, l, r, y,
th
The
final “ed” is pronounced /t/ after: p, k, f, sh, ch.




IX/
PLURAL


General rule: singular + s
(girl__girls)


nouns
ending in s, z, x, sh, ch: add es (box__boxes)
nouns
ending in a consonant + y: y changes to (i) and add es (spy__spies)
nouns
ending in f/ fe: change f/fe to (v) and add es (life__lives)








X/ RELATIVE CLAUSES


WHO/ WHICH/ THAT: when subject of
the relative clause, I cannot omit them.


Eg: We know a lot of people who live in London. Here, “ who” is subject and it can’t
be omitted.


When these relative pronouns are
object of the relative clause, they can be
omitted.


Eg: The woman (who) I wanted to see
was away on vacation. Here, “who” is object and it can be omitted.


WHOSE is used instead of his, her,
their

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